This work presents a study on label noise in medical image segmentation by considering a noise model based on Gaussian field deformations. Such noise is of interest because it yields realistic looking segmentations and because it is unbiased in the sense that the expected deformation is the identity mapping. Efficient methods for sampling and closed form solutions for the marginal probabilities are provided. Moreover, theoretically optimal solutions to the loss functions cross-entropy and soft-Dice are studied and it is shown how they diverge as the level of noise increases. Based on recent work on loss function characterization, it is shown that optimal solutions to soft-Dice can be recovered by thresholding solutions to cross-entropy with a particular a priori unknown threshold that efficiently can be computed. This raises the question whether the decrease in performance seen when using cross-entropy as compared to soft-Dice is caused by using the wrong threshold. The hypothesis is validated in 5-fold studies on three organ segmentation problems from the TotalSegmentor data set, using 4 different strengths of noise. The results show that changing the threshold leads the performance of cross-entropy to go from systematically worse than soft-Dice to similar or better results than soft-Dice.

翻译：暂无翻译